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The book provides a comprehensive history of the Middle Ages, focusing on the Crusades, the Byzantine Empire, and the city of Rome. It begins with an account of the Crusades, including the events of the second and third Crusades, the involvement of notable figures such as St. Bernard and Richard the First of England, and the ultimate failure of the Crusades to reclaim Jerusalem from Muslim rule. The book then shifts its focus to the Byzantine Empire, detailing the reigns of various emperors, including Michael Palæologus and John Cantacuzene, and the eventual fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks. The history of the Ottoman Empire is also explored, including the rise of Othman and the conquests of his successors, such as Orchan and Amurath. The book also delves into the history of Rome, discussing the temporal dominion of the popes, the city's tumultuous relationship with the emperors, and the attempts of various figures, such as Cola di Rienzi, to reform the city's government. The final chapters of the book reflect on the decline and fall of the Roman Empire, the rise of the papacy, and the impact of the ecclesiastical government on the city of Rome. Throughout the book, the author provides a detailed and nuanced portrait of the complex and often tumultuous politics of medieval Europe, highlighting the significant events, figures, and themes that shaped the course of history during this period.
The chapter discusses the Crusades, a series of military campaigns sanctioned by the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages. It highlights the preservation of the Greek Empire and the events of the second and third Crusades, including the involvement of notable figures such as St. Bernard, Richard the First of England, and Pope Innocent the Third. The Crusades were marked by large numbers of soldiers and pilgrims marching from Western Europe to the Holy Land, with the goal of reclaiming Jerusalem from Muslim rule. However, the Crusades were ultimately unsuccessful, and the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem was eventually lost. The chapter also touches on the reign of Saladin in Egypt and Syria, his conquest of Jerusalem, and the naval Crusades. Additionally, it mentions the roles of various European leaders, including the Emperor Frederic the Second and Louis the Ninth of France, in the later Crusades. The expulsion of the Latins or Franks by the Mamelukes is also noted. The chapter concludes by reflecting on the enthusiasm and perseverance of the Crusaders, despite their repeated failures, and the significant impact of the Crusades on the history of Europe and the Middle East.
The Fatimite caliphs in Egypt were revered for their descent from the prophet, but their power and influence were in decline. The Latin ambassadors described the opulent palace of Cairo, where they were introduced to the caliph through a series of gloomy passages and glittering porticos. However, the viziers had usurped the supreme administration of Egypt, and the claims of rival candidates were decided by arms. The Turkish prince, Noureddin, aspired to reign in Egypt under the name of the Abbassides, and the emir Shiracouh was entrusted with the conquest of Egypt. After a series of battles and sieges, Shiracouh was invested with the office of grand vizier, and the Fatimite caliph was eventually deposed. The Turkish emirs, including Saladin, then rose to power, and Saladin's military character was established through his defense of Alexandria. Saladin's virtues, including his generosity, justice, and piety, earned him the esteem of the Christians, and he was even ranked among the Mahometan saints. However, his ambition and the weakness of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem ultimately led to the conquest of the city, and the Franks were forced to evacuate. The siege of Acre, which lasted nearly two years, was a brutal and devastating conflict that resulted in the deaths of thousands of Christians and the eventual surrender of the city. The Latin powers acquired a strong town and a convenient harbor, but at great cost, and the advantage was short-lived.
The chapter continues the narrative of the Crusades, focusing on the exploits of King Richard the First of England and King Philip Augustus of France. The two monarchs, despite their differences, led the crusaders to several victories, including the recovery of the sea-coast and the capture of key cities such as Jaffa. However, their national jealousy and the factions they protected in Palestine often hindered their progress. The chapter also touches on the negotiations between the Franks and the Moslems, which were marked by periods of hostility and uneasy truces. The eventual decline of the Crusades is attributed to the rise of the Mamalukes, a powerful and disciplined force that ultimately led to the expulsion of the Latins from Palestine. The chapter concludes with the demise of the Latin kingdom and the fall of Acre, the last major stronghold of the Crusaders. The final section reflects on the legacy of the Crusades, noting the significant impact they had on the history of Europe and the Middle East, and the lessons that can be drawn from the experiences of the Crusaders.
The chapter explores the schism between the Greek and Latin churches, which ultimately led to the decline and fall of the Roman empire in the East. The separation of the two churches was caused by a combination of religious and national animosity, as well as the emulation of leading prelates. The Greeks and Latins had different interpretations of the Nicene creed, with the Greeks rejecting the addition of the word "filioque" by the Latins. This disagreement led to a series of conflicts and excommunications between the two churches. The chapter also discusses the rise of the Venetian republic, which became a powerful maritime state through its trade and navigation. The Venetians were able to maintain their independence from the Byzantine empire and eventually became a major player in the crusades. Meanwhile, the Byzantine emperor Isaac Angelus was facing challenges from the Bulgarians and Walachians, who were seeking independence. His brother Alexius Angelus eventually overthrew him and took the throne, but his reign was marked by luxury and corruption. The chapter also introduces the story of the young Alexius, son of Isaac, who escaped to Italy and sought the help of the Pope and the Western nobles to restore his father to the throne. The nobles, led by the count of Champagne, decided to launch a new crusade to conquer Egypt and eventually restore the Holy Land. They chose six deputies to lead the expedition, including Geoffrey of Villehardouin, who would later write a history of the crusade. The deputies traveled to Venice to secure the help of the Venetian fleet, which would be crucial for the success of the expedition.
The chapter describes the events leading up to the Fourth Crusade, including the negotiations between the French ambassadors and the doge of Venice, Henry Dandolo. The doge, despite his advanced age and blindness, was a shrewd and ambitious leader who saw the potential benefits of an alliance with the French. The two parties agreed on a treaty, which included the transportation of the crusaders to Egypt and the division of any conquests. However, the crusaders were unable to pay the full amount agreed upon, and the doge proposed an alternative plan, which involved attacking the city of Zara, a Christian city that had rebelled against Venice. The crusaders eventually agreed to this plan, and the city was conquered after a short siege. The chapter also describes the character of the doge, who was driven by a desire for glory and revenge against the Byzantine empire, which he believed had wronged him in the past. The crusaders then set their sights on Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine empire, and after a series of battles and negotiations, they were able to breach the city's defenses and overthrow the usurper Alexius. The blind emperor Isaac was restored to the throne, and the crusaders were hailed as heroes. However, the victory was short-lived, as the city was soon plunged into chaos and violence, and the crusaders were forced to navigate the complex and treacherous world of Byzantine politics.
The chapter describes the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade and the conquest of Constantinople by the Latin armies. After the city's fall, the Latin leaders, including Boniface, Marquis of Montferrat, and Baldwin, Count of Flanders, took control of the city and its riches. The Greeks, led by the usurper Alexius Mourzoufle, were unable to withstand the Latin assault, and the city was plundered and pillaged. The Latins took vast amounts of treasure, including gold, silver, and precious jewels, and many of the city's inhabitants were killed or sold into slavery. The chapter also describes the destruction of many of the city's iconic landmarks, including the statues of ancient Greek and Roman heroes, which were melted down for their metal. The Latin conquest of Constantinople marked the end of the Byzantine Empire and had a profound impact on the history of Europe and the Middle East. The city's fall led to a significant transfer of wealth and power from the East to the West, and it paved the way for the rise of Western European powers, including the Venetian Republic.
The French and Venetians, after conquering Constantinople, agreed to divide the Byzantine Empire among themselves. They created a system where twelve electors, six from each nation, would choose the emperor of the East. Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was chosen as the first emperor and was crowned by the legate in the absence of a patriarch. The Venetians, led by Doge Dandolo, were given a significant portion of the empire, including three-eighths of the city of Constantinople. The Latin Empire was established, with Baldwin as its ruler, and the Venetians held a significant amount of power and influence. The new emperor sent messages to Palestine, France, and Rome, announcing his ascension to the throne and seeking support for his new empire. However, the Latin Empire was marked by weakness, poverty, and feudal discord, which led to its eventual decline. The Greeks, who had been conquered by the Latins, began to rebel against their new rulers, and the Bulgarian king, John, also known as Calo-John, formed an alliance with the Greeks to overthrow the Latin Empire. The Latins, led by Emperor Baldwin, marched against the rebels but were defeated, and Baldwin was taken prisoner. The Latin Empire was eventually overthrown, and the Greeks reestablished their own empire, with Theodore Lascaris as their leader.
The Latin Empire, established after the Fourth Crusade, faced numerous challenges, including the rise of the Bulgarian king Calo-John, who resisted the Latin rule and eventually led to the death of Emperor Baldwin. The empire was left without a strong leader, and the barons of Romania were forced to seek a new emperor. They chose Henry, the brother of Baldwin, who proved to be a skilled and courageous leader. However, his reign was short-lived, and he died in battle. The empire was then ruled by a series of weak and ineffective leaders, including Robert of Courtenay and John of Brienne. The latter, a veteran king of Jerusalem, was chosen as the emperor due to his reputation and military skills. Despite his initial successes, John of Brienne's reign was marked by inaction and eventual decline. The empire was eventually left to Baldwin II, the young and inexperienced son of Peter of Courtenay, who was forced to rely on the charity of Western powers to maintain his rule. His reign was marked by poverty, humiliation, and eventual expulsion from Constantinople. The Latin Empire's decline was hastened by its internal weaknesses, including the lack of a strong leader, the depletion of its military resources, and the rise of external threats, such as the Bulgarian and Greek empires.
The Latin Empire, established by the French and Venetians after the Fourth Crusade, faced significant challenges, including financial struggles and internal conflicts. The emperor, Baldwin, was forced to pawn the holy crown of thorns to a Venetian merchant, but it was later redeemed by the king of France, who built a special chapel to house it. Meanwhile, the Greek emperor, Michael Palaeologus, was determined to retake Constantinople and eventually succeeded in doing so with the help of his general, Alexius Strategopulus. The Latin Empire came to an end, and the title of emperor was eventually passed down through various families until it became extinct. The Crusades had a profound impact on the countries and nations involved, leading to the transfer of knowledge, trade, and cultural exchange between East and West. However, the Latins were initially slow to adopt the learning and languages of the Greeks and Arabians, and instead focused on acquiring wealth and relics. The Crusades also led to the corruption of Catholic belief and practice, the establishment of the inquisition, and the progress of idolatry. Ultimately, the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries became an age of absurdity and fable, marked by the active spirit of the Latins preying on the vitals of their reason and religion.
The chapter discusses the impact of the Crusades on European society, particularly in regards to the decline of the feudal system and the rise of a more modern and enlightened era. The Crusades, although marked by violence and bloodshed, inadvertently contributed to the weakening of the feudal aristocracy, as many nobles participated in the wars and either died or spent their wealth, leading to a shift in power and the emergence of a new class of landowners. The chapter also explores the history of the Courtenay family, who were descended from the French monarchs and played a significant role in the Crusades and the Latin Empire of Constantinople. The family's history is marked by periods of greatness and decline, with various branches rising to prominence and then fading into obscurity. The chapter concludes by noting that the Courtenay family, despite their past glories, has survived to the present day, albeit in a diminished form, and that their story serves as a reminder of the transience of power and the importance of adaptability in an ever-changing world.
The chapter describes the rise of Michael Palæologus, a skilled and courageous leader, who becomes the guardian of the young Emperor John Lascaris after the death of his father, Theodore. Palæologus eventually seizes the throne and has John blinded to secure his position. The patriarch, Arsenius, excommunicates Palæologus for his cruel act, but the emperor refuses to abdicate. Meanwhile, the recovery of Constantinople from the Latins is celebrated, and Palæologus works to restore the city and its trade. He allows the Latin inhabitants to remain and encourages the industry of the Pisans, Venetians, and Genoese, while also promoting the interests of the Greeks. The chapter also touches on the character of Palæologus, who is driven by ambition and a desire for power, but also shows signs of remorse for his cruel actions.
The chapter continues the narrative of the Greek emperors of Nice and Constantinople, focusing on the reign of Michael Palæologus. After the death of the patriarch Arsenius, who had excommunicated Palæologus, a new patriarch, Joseph, was appointed, and the emperor was eventually absolved of his sins. However, the union between the Greek and Latin churches was short-lived, and the emperor's attempts to enforce it led to opposition and rebellion. The chapter also describes the rise of Charles of Anjou, who became the king of Naples and Sicily, and his ambitions to conquer the Greek empire. The emperor Palæologus formed an alliance with Peter of Arragon, who was married to the sister of the former king of Sicily, and together they conspired against Charles. The conspiracy led to the Sicilian Vespers, a rebellion that resulted in the massacre of the French inhabitants of Sicily and the expulsion of Charles from the island. The chapter concludes with the aftermath of the rebellion, including the establishment of an independent kingdom of Sicily and the decline of Charles's power.
The chapter describes the arrival of Roger de Flor, a skilled and courageous leader, in Constantinople with a large group of mercenaries, known as the Catalans. They were hired by the emperor Andronicus to fight against the Turks, but soon turned against their employer, pillaging and plundering the surrounding countryside. The emperor attempted to discharge them, but they refused to leave, and eventually, Roger de Flor was assassinated. The Catalans, seeking revenge, continued their rampage, and the emperor was forced to flee. The chapter also discusses the history of the principality of Athens and Thebes, which was assigned to Otho de la Roche, a noble warrior of Burgundy, after the partition of the empire. The city of Athens was eventually taken over by the Catalans, who married the local women and established their own dynasty. The chapter concludes by describing the current state of Athens, which has fallen into decay and is now inhabited by a mix of Greeks, Turks, and other nationalities. The Athenians have lost their former glory and are now characterized by their cunning and selfishness, and the city is ruled by a combination of Turkish bashaws and Greek archons.
The chapter discusses the reigns of Andronicus the Elder and Younger, as well as John Palæologus, and the decline of the Greek Empire. Andronicus the Elder was a learned and virtuous prince, but his reign was marked by disputes within the Greek church and the rise of the Ottoman power. His grandson, Andronicus the Younger, was corrupted by his infant greatness and aspired to wealth and impunity rather than fame or the happiness of his people. The younger Andronicus eventually overthrew his grandfather and took the throne, but his reign was marked by civil discord, abuse of power, and decline of the empire. The chapter also touches on the character of John Cantacuzene, a skilled and courageous leader who played a significant role in the civil wars and the rise of the younger Andronicus. Cantacuzene's memorials, which extend over 40 years, provide valuable insights into the events of the time, but are also criticized for their lack of sincerity and tendency to varnish the truth. The establishment of a Genoese colony at Pera or Galata and their wars with the empire and city of Constantinople are also mentioned.
The chapter describes the ongoing civil war between John Cantacuzene and the young Emperor John Palaeologus, with Cantacuzene eventually emerging victorious. However, his reign is marked by discontent and the threat of rebellion. The Genoese, who have a colony in Pera, become a dominant force in the region and engage in a war with the Venetians, with the Byzantine Empire caught in the middle. The Genoese ultimately emerge victorious, and the Byzantine Empire is forced to sign a treaty granting them a monopoly on trade and significant influence over the empire. The chapter also touches on the theological debates of the time, including the controversy over the uncreated light of Mount Thabor, and the involvement of the monk Barlaam in these debates. The decline of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of the Genoese and Venetians as major powers in the region are also highlighted.
The chapter discusses the rise of the Mongols and their conquests under the leadership of Zingis Khan, also known as Genghis Khan. Zingis Khan united various tribes and formed a powerful army that went on to conquer a vast portion of the known world, creating the largest contiguous empire in history. The Mongols were a nomadic people from the steppes of Central Asia, and their military campaigns were marked by brutality and efficiency. Zingis Khan's code of laws, known as the "Yassa," promoted loyalty, discipline, and tolerance, and allowed for the coexistence of different religions and cultures within the empire. The chapter also touches on the origins of the Ottoman Turks, who would eventually go on to establish a vast empire of their own. The Mongols' conquests had a profound impact on world history, leading to the transfer of goods, ideas, and cultures between East and West, and shaping the course of European and Asian history for centuries to come.
The chapter continues the narrative of the Mongol Empire, focusing on the conquests of Zingis Khan and his successors. Zingis Khan's military campaigns expanded the empire, and he became the monarch of the pastoral world, with millions of shepherds and soldiers under his control. His descendants, including Octai, Mangou, and Cublai, continued to expand the empire, conquering China, Syria, and Eastern Europe. The Mongols' military tactics and strategies are described, including their use of engineers, gunpowder, and clever diplomacy. The chapter also touches on the cultural and administrative developments within the empire, including the establishment of a capital city, Caracorum, and the adoption of Chinese administrative practices. The Mongol emperors' relationships with European powers, including the Roman pontiff and the kings of France and England, are also discussed. The chapter concludes with a description of the decline of the Mongol Empire, including the expulsion of the Yuen dynasty by a revolt of native Chinese and the fragmentation of the empire into smaller khanates.
The chapter describes the rise of the Ottoman Empire, founded by Othman, a Turkish tribal leader. After the decline of the Seljukian dynasty, Othman established his capital in Bithynia and began to conquer neighboring territories. His son, Orchan, expanded the empire, capturing key cities such as Prusa, Nice, and Nicomedia. The Ottomans' military prowess and strategic alliances enabled them to gain control over much of Anatolia and the surrounding regions. The chapter also touches on the complex relationships between the Ottomans and the Byzantine Empire, including the marriage of Orchan to the daughter of the Byzantine emperor, Cantacuzene. The Ottomans' eventual conquest of the Byzantine Empire was facilitated by the internal divisions and weaknesses of the Byzantines, as well as the Ottomans' own military strength and strategic leadership. The chapter concludes with the death of Orchan and the succession of his son, Soliman, who continued to expand the Ottoman Empire.
The chapter continues the narrative of the Ottoman Empire, focusing on the reign of Amurath, the son of Orchan. Amurath conquers the province of Romania, including the city of Adrianople, and establishes his capital there. He then marches against the Sclavonian nations, breaking their resistance and incorporating them into the Ottoman Empire. The Janizaries, a corps of infantry, are established and become a key component of the Ottoman military. Amurath's reign is marked by his military prowess and strategic alliances, which enable him to expand the empire's borders. However, his life is cut short when he is mortally wounded by a Servian soldier. The chapter then shifts to the reign of Bajazet, Amurath's son and successor, who earns the surname "Ilderim" or "the lightning" due to his rapid and destructive military campaigns. Bajazet conquers much of Anatolia and expands the empire's borders in Europe, threatening the kingdom of Hungary and the city of Constantinople. The French, led by the duke of Burgundy, launch a crusade against the Ottomans but are defeated at the battle of Nicopolis. Bajazet's character is described as ambitious and cruel, but also just and fair in his treatment of his enemies. The chapter concludes with the story of John Palaeologus, the emperor of Constantinople, who is forced to navigate the complex web of alliances and rivalries between the Ottomans, the Hungarians, and the French.
The chapter describes the life and conquests of Timour, also known as Tamerlane, a Turco-Mongol emperor who rose to power in the 14th century. Born in the village of Sebzar, near Samarcand, Timour was a member of the noble tribe of Berlass and claimed descent from the great Genghis Khan. He began his military career at a young age and quickly gained a reputation for his bravery and strategic genius. Timour's conquests took him across a vast portion of the known world, including Persia, Tartary, and India, and he eventually established a vast empire that stretched from the Indus River to the Caspian Sea. The chapter also describes Timour's conflicts with the Ottoman Empire, particularly with Sultan Bajazet, whom he defeated at the Battle of Ankara in 1402. Timour's military campaigns were marked by their brutality and efficiency, and he was known for his tolerance of different religions and cultures. Despite his many conquests, Timour's empire was short-lived, and he died in 1405 while on a campaign to conquer China. The chapter concludes by noting that Timour's legacy was complex and multifaceted, and that his impact on world history was significant, shaping the course of European and Asian history for centuries to come.
The chapter continues to describe the life and conquests of Timour, also known as Tamerlane, a Turco-Mongol emperor. After defeating the Ottoman Sultan Bajazet at the Battle of Angora, Timour treated him with kindness and respect, but later subjected him to harsher treatment, possibly including imprisonment in an iron cage. The chapter also discusses the conquests of Timour in Anatolia, his interactions with the Greek emperor, and his plans to invade China. The Chinese empire was in a state of turmoil at the time, with a weak and unfortunate youth on the throne, and Timour saw an opportunity for revenge against the house of Zingis. He despatched an army to open the road to China, subdue the Pagan Calmucks and Mungals, and found cities and magazines in the desert. Meanwhile, the emperor achieved the final conquest of Georgia, passed the winter on the banks of the Araxes, and slowly returned to his capital after a campaign of four years and nine months.
The chapter describes the final years of Timour's life, his return to Samarcand, and his preparations for a new campaign against China. It also touches on the history of the Ottoman Empire, the reigns of the sons of Bajazet, and the eventual rise of Mahomet I to the throne. The chapter further explores the institution of the Janizaries, the elite corps of soldiers in the Ottoman Empire, and their training and discipline. The use of gunpowder and artillery in warfare is also discussed, and how it was adopted by the Turks and other nations. The chapter concludes by reflecting on the significance of the Ottoman Empire's history and its impact on the world.
The chapter discusses the attempts of the Byzantine emperors to unite with the Latin Church and seek aid from Western powers against the Ottoman Turks. The emperor John Palæologus sent a delegation to the Roman court, proposing a union of the churches, but the plan was met with resistance from the Greek clergy and people. The emperor himself later traveled to the West, visiting Venice, Padua, Pavia, and Paris, where he was received with honor and respect. However, he was unable to secure significant aid or support for his cause, and his journey was ultimately unsuccessful. The chapter also touches on the state of the Latin Church during this period, including the Great Schism and the rival popes of Rome and Avignon. The Byzantine emperor's attempts to navigate this complex situation and secure aid for his embattled empire are a central theme of the chapter.
The chapter continues the narrative of the attempts to unite the Greek and Latin churches. The Byzantine emperor, John Palæologus, is invited by the Roman pontiff, Eugenius, to attend a council in Italy, with the goal of healing the schism between the two churches. However, the emperor is hesitant and seeks advice from various parties, including the Turkish sultan, Amurath, who offers to support the Byzantine court financially and promises to keep Constantinople safe during the emperor's absence. Despite these assurances, the patriarch, Joseph, is opposed to the idea of attending the council, citing the dangers of the sea and the potential for the Greeks to be overpowered by the Latins. Nevertheless, the emperor decides to embark on the journey, accompanied by a large retinue of clergy and nobles. The chapter also describes the tensions between the council of Basil and the Roman pontiff, with the council seeking to assert its authority and the pope attempting to maintain his power. The scene is set for a dramatic confrontation between the Eastern and Western churches, with the fate of the Byzantine empire hanging in the balance.
The chapter describes the events leading up to the Union of the Greek and Latin Churches, which took place in Florence, Italy. The Byzantine Emperor, John Palaeologus, traveled to Italy to attend a council with the Roman pontiff, Eugenius, in an effort to reunite the two churches. The Greeks were dissatisfied with the proceedings, feeling that the Latins were not genuinely interested in reunification. Despite this, the two sides eventually reached an agreement, known as the Act of Union, which stated that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father and the Son. The agreement was signed by the pope, the emperor, and the principal members of both churches. The chapter also discusses the impact of the Union on the Byzantine Empire and the spread of Greek learning in Italy, which ultimately contributed to the revival of classical knowledge in Europe. The Union, however, was short-lived, and the Byzantine Empire eventually fell to the Ottoman Turks.
The chapter discusses the revival of Greek learning in Italy during the 14th and 15th centuries. It highlights the role of key figures such as Petrarch, Boccaccio, and Manuel Chrysoloras in introducing Greek language and literature to Italy. The chapter also explores the impact of the fall of Constantinople on the spread of Greek learning, as many Greek scholars fled to Italy, bringing with them their knowledge and manuscripts. The establishment of Greek schools and academies in Italy, particularly in Florence and Rome, is also discussed. The chapter notes that while the Greeks played a significant role in reviving classical learning, the Latins soon surpassed them in their knowledge and appreciation of Greek literature. The invention of printing also helped to spread Greek learning, making it more accessible to a wider audience. However, the chapter also suggests that the initial enthusiasm for classical learning was marked by a servile imitation of ancient authors, and it was only later that modern writers began to develop their own unique styles and voices.
The chapter discusses the schism between the Greek and Latin churches, and the attempts to unite them. The Byzantine Emperor John Palaeologus had traveled to Italy to attend a council with the Roman pontiff, Eugenius, but the union was met with resistance from the Greek clergy and people. The Greeks were scandalized by the Latin creed and the use of unleavened bread in the communion, and they eventually rejected the union. The chapter also touches on the character of Amurath, the Turkish sultan, who was a just and valiant prince, but also superstitious and cruel. He had abdicated the throne twice, once to retire to a life of solitude and prayer, and again to return to power after a period of turmoil. The Hungarians, led by Ladislaus, had launched a crusade against the Turks, but it ended in disaster, with the death of Ladislaus and the defeat of the Christian army. The chapter concludes by noting that the failure of the crusade was due to the lack of unity and cooperation among the Christian nations, and that the Turks were able to take advantage of their divisions to continue their conquests.
The chapter describes the events leading up to the death of Ladislaus, the king of Hungary, in the battle of Varna. The Turkish sultan, Amurath, had issued from his solitude and transported his forces to defend Europe, and the Christians were defeated. The cardinal Julian Cæsarini, who had been sent to Hungary to promote a crusade against the Turks, was also killed in the battle. The chapter also tells the story of John Huniades, a skilled and courageous leader who played a significant role in the battle and later became the governor of Hungary. Additionally, the chapter introduces Scanderbeg, a Albanian prince who rebelled against the Ottoman Empire and fought against the Turks for many years. The chapter concludes by describing the last days of the Byzantine Empire and the reign of the last emperor, Constantine, who was crowned in Sparta and later sailed to Constantinople to assert his claim to the throne.
The chapter describes the reign of Mahomet II, the Ottoman sultan who conquered Constantinople. Mahomet's character is portrayed as a complex mix of devout Muslim, educated and cultured leader, and ruthless conqueror. He is said to have been educated in multiple languages, including Arabic, Persian, Chaldaic, Latin, and Greek, and to have been familiar with the lives of great heroes, including Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar. Despite his cultural and intellectual accomplishments, Mahomet's nature is described as savage and licentious, with a history of violence and brutality. The chapter also details the events leading up to the conquest of Constantinople, including the construction of a Turkish fortress on the Bosphorus, the expulsion of Greek officers, and the massacre of innocent villagers. The Greek emperor, Constantine, is shown to be aware of the impending danger but unable to take effective action to prevent it. The chapter concludes with Mahomet's declaration of war against the Greeks and his vow to take Constantinople, which sets the stage for the eventual conquest of the city.
The chapter describes the siege of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks, led by Mahomet II, in 1453. The Turks had a massive army and a powerful artillery, including a huge cannon that could fire a stone ball weighing over 600 pounds. The Greek defenders, led by Emperor Constantine, were vastly outnumbered and outgunned, but they put up a fierce resistance. The Turks used various tactics, including mines and towers, to try and breach the city walls, but the Greeks were able to repel each attack. Despite being outnumbered, the Greeks were able to hold off the Turks for several weeks, but eventually, the city fell on May 29, 1453. The chapter also discusses the role of the Janizaries, the elite corps of the Ottoman army, and the use of gunpowder and artillery in the siege. The author notes that the siege of Constantinople was a significant event in world history, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and the beginning of Ottoman rule in the region.
The chapter describes the final days of the siege of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks, led by Mahomet II. Despite the bravery of the defenders, the city's walls are breached, and the Turks pour in, leading to a bloody and chaotic conquest. The Byzantine Emperor, Constantine, fights valiantly but is ultimately killed in the battle. The city is sacked, and its inhabitants are either killed or taken prisoner. The chapter also describes the aftermath of the conquest, including the flight of the Genoese and other Latin allies, and the establishment of Ottoman rule in the city. The author reflects on the significance of the fall of Constantinople, which marks the end of the Byzantine Empire and the beginning of Ottoman dominance in the region.
The chapter describes the aftermath of the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks, led by Mahomet II. The city was left in a state of devastation, with many of its inhabitants killed, taken prisoner, or forced to flee. The Turks took control of the city and its riches, and Mahomet II established his own residence and that of his successors on the same spot where Constantine had founded the city. The Greek church was transformed into a mosque, and the city's population was renewed with Muslims from Anatolia and Romania. The last of the Palaeologi dynasty, Demetrius and Thomas, were forced to surrender and were eventually exiled or killed. The fall of Constantinople had a significant impact on the Western world, leading to a renewed enthusiasm for the crusades and a desire to retake the city from the Turks. However, the attempts at a new crusade were unsuccessful, and the Turks continued to expand their empire. The chapter concludes with a reflection on the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in the East, and the end of the Byzantine dynasty.
The chapter discusses the state of Rome in the 12th century, focusing on the temporal dominion of the popes and the city's tumultuous relationship with the emperors. The popes, who were chosen by the college of cardinals, held significant power and influence, but their authority was often challenged by the Romans, who resented the foreign influence of the German emperors. The city was plagued by sedition, violence, and corruption, with the pope and clergy frequently being attacked and insulted. The Romans' prejudice against the popes was fueled by their perception of the papacy as a foreign and oppressive power. The chapter also touches on the rise of heresy and the emergence of figures like Arnold of Brescia, who preached against the wealth and power of the clergy and advocated for a return to a simpler, more spiritual form of Christianity. Arnold's ideas were influenced by his teacher, Peter Abelard, and he gained a significant following in Italy and beyond, but was eventually condemned as a heretic and forced to flee. The chapter concludes by highlighting the complex and often contentious relationship between the popes, the emperors, and the city of Rome, which would continue to shape the course of European history in the centuries to come.
The chapter continues to describe the state of Rome in the 12th century, focusing on the attempts of Arnold of Brescia to reform the city's government and the resistance he faced from the clergy and nobles. Arnold's goal was to restore the ancient Roman republic and limit the power of the pope, but his efforts ultimately failed, and he was burned alive in the presence of a careless and ungrateful people. The chapter also explores the establishment of the Roman senate and the election of consuls, as well as the role of the præfect of the city and the relationship between the pope and the emperor. Additionally, the chapter touches on the introduction of foreign magistrates, known as Podestà, to govern the city and maintain order, and the conditions under which they were appointed, including their oath of office, term of service, and stipend.
The chapter describes the state of Rome in the 13th century, focusing on the relationship between the Roman people, the Senate, and the Pope. The Romans had elected a senator, Brancaleone, who was tasked with maintaining order and defending the city against external threats. However, the Romans were also prone to internal conflicts and power struggles, which often led to violence and bloodshed. The chapter also touches on the role of the Pope and the Catholic Church in Rome, including the election of the Pope and the relationship between the Church and the secular authorities. The author notes that the Roman people were often at odds with the Pope and the Church, and that the city was plagued by corruption, violence, and instability. The chapter also describes the attempts of the Emperor Frederic II to assert his authority over Rome and the Pope, and the subsequent struggles between the Empire and the Church. Overall, the chapter provides a detailed and nuanced portrait of the complex and often tumultuous politics of medieval Rome.
The chapter discusses the state of Rome in the 12th century, focusing on the temporal dominion of the popes and the city's tumultuous relationship with the emperors. The French faction in the papal conclave successfully elected Clement V as the new pope, who later moved the papal residence to Avignon, France. The city of Rome suffered from the absence of the popes, and the Roman people were left to govern themselves. The chapter also explores the history of the Colonna and Ursini families, two powerful noble families in Rome, and their long-standing feud. The Colonna family was known for their bravery and military prowess, while the Ursini family was known for their wealth and influence. The chapter also touches on the theme of nepotism and the abuse of power by the popes, particularly Nicholas III, who favored his own family members in the distribution of wealth and power. The rivalry between the Colonna and Ursini families continued for centuries, with each family seeking to assert their dominance over the other.
The chapter discusses the life and times of Petrarch, a renowned Italian poet, and his coronation as poet-laureate in Rome. It also explores the rise of Cola di Rienzi, a tribune who led a revolution in Rome and established a new government. Rienzi, who was born to a humble family, was driven by a desire to restore the "good estate" of Rome and to revive the city's ancient glory. Through his eloquence and charisma, he was able to rally the people of Rome and establish a new order, with himself as the leader. The chapter also touches on the social and economic conditions of Rome at the time, including the poverty, corruption, and violence that plagued the city. Rienzi's government implemented various reforms, including the establishment of a militia, the regulation of commerce, and the protection of the poor and vulnerable. However, his success was short-lived, and he was eventually forced to flee Rome due to the opposition of the nobles and the church. The chapter concludes by highlighting the significance of Rienzi's revolution and its impact on the history of Rome and Italy.
The chapter continues to describe the life and reign of Cola di Rienzi, the tribune of Rome. Rienzi's government was marked by a mix of justice, cruelty, and extravagance, and he eventually became tyrannical in his rule. He summoned the nobles of Rome, including the Colonna and Ursini families, and had them imprisoned, but later released them after they pledged their allegiance to him. However, the barons soon rebelled against Rienzi, and he was forced to flee Rome. The city was left in a state of chaos, and the people began to turn against Rienzi. The pope, Clement VI, issued a bull of excommunication against Rienzi, and the barons, seeking revenge, joined forces with the church to overthrow him. Rienzi's downfall was facilitated by his own arrogance and the opposition of the nobles, and he was eventually forced to abdicate and flee Rome. The chapter concludes with Rienzi's exile and the end of his reign as tribune of Rome.
The chapter continues the narrative of Cola di Rienzi, the tribune of Rome, and his attempts to restore the city to its former glory. After a period of exile, Rienzi returns to Rome and is initially welcomed back, but his second administration is marked by his own vices and those of the people. He becomes tyrannical and is eventually massacred in a tumult. The chapter also discusses the rise of the papacy and the Avignon popes, and the attempts of the Roman people to recall the pope to Rome. The pope, Gregory XI, is persuaded to return to Rome, but his death leads to the Great Schism of the West, with two rival popes, Urban VI and Clement VII, vying for power. The schism lasts for nearly 40 years, causing great turmoil and division within the Catholic Church. The chapter concludes with the election of a new pope, Martin V, who is able to restore unity to the Church and establish the papacy in the Vatican.
The chapter discusses the final settlement of the ecclesiastical state, particularly the reigns of popes Martin V, Eugenius IV, and Nicholas V. It highlights the conflicts between the popes and the Roman people, as well as the struggles for power among the noble families of Rome, such as the Colonna and Ursini. The chapter also touches on the character of Stephen Porcaro, a Roman patriot who attempted to overthrow the papal government and restore the Roman republic. Additionally, it describes the decline of the Roman nobles' independence and the rise of the papal families' wealth and influence. The chapter concludes by reflecting on the temporal kingdom of the clergy and the effects of the ecclesiastical government on the city of Rome, including the suppression of freedom and the promotion of servitude.
The chapter describes the state of Rome in the 15th century, with a focus on the ruins of the city and the causes of its decline. The author notes that the city's decay was a result of four main factors: the injuries of time and nature, the hostile attacks of barbarians and Christians, the use and abuse of materials, and the domestic quarrels of the Romans. The chapter also touches on the history of the city, including the construction of the Coliseum and the Pantheon, and the ways in which the materials from these ancient buildings were reused in later centuries. The author laments the loss of many of Rome's ancient monuments and the destruction caused by the city's own inhabitants, who have used the materials from these buildings to construct their own homes and fortifications. The chapter concludes with a reflection on the importance of preserving the remains of ancient Rome and the need to protect the city from further destruction.
The chapter describes the state of Rome in the 15th century, focusing on the ruins of the city and the causes of its decline. The author notes that the city's decay was a result of four main factors: the injuries of time and nature, the hostile attacks of barbarians and Christians, the use and abuse of materials, and the domestic quarrels of the Romans. The chapter also explores the history of the Coliseum, including its construction, decay, and use as a quarry for building materials. The author laments the loss of many of Rome's ancient monuments and the destruction caused by the city's own inhabitants. The chapter also touches on the theme of the revival of classical learning and the emergence of a new appreciation for ancient Roman culture. The author reflects on the significance of the Coliseum and the Roman Forum, and how they have been preserved and restored over time. The chapter concludes with the author's own personal reflections on the history of Rome and the importance of preserving its cultural heritage.